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Data extracted in February 2022 January 2022
Fiche created in February 2024
Note to the reader: This general fiche summarises all the environmental and climate impacts of cover and catch crops, COVER AND CATCH CROPS found in a review of 39 40 synthesis research papers[1]. These papers were selected from an initial number of 159 158 obtained through a systematic literature search strategy, according to the inclusion criteria reported in section 4.
As each synthesis research paper involves a number of primary research papers ranging from 4 to 269 (often around 50), the assessment of impacts relies on a large number of results obtained mainly from real farms and field experiments (carried out by scientists in situations close to real farming environment).
...
The impacts reported here are those for which there is scientific evidence available in published synthesis papers, what does not preclude the farming practice to have other impacts on the environment and climate still not covered by primary studies or by synthesis papers.
The synthesis papers review a number of primary studies ranging from 4 to 269. Therefore, the assessment of impacts relies on a large number of results from the primary studies, obtained mainly in field conditions, or sometimes in lab experiments or from model simulations.
1. DESCRIPTION OF THE FARMING PRACTICE
...
...
- Description:
- Cover crops are grown to provide vegetative cover between rows of main crops in orchards and vineyards, or in the period between two main arable crops to prevent erosion and
...
- minimize the risk of surface
...
- runoff by improving the infiltration. They may also function as catch crops, which scavenge the remaining nitrogen after the main crop is harvested, thereby reducing nutrient losses from leaching. They are temporary crops that may be cut and removed or incorporated into the soil. The practice of incorporating crops into the soil to provide nutrient is defined as
...
- “green manuring”[2]
- Spontaneous vegetation left growing with the same purpose of cover crops is also included under this practice
...
- Key descriptors
...
- :
...
- Crops sown on purpose during the fallow season, or undersown to winter/spring main crops, or sown between rows of tree or vineyard crops as mean of soil living cover.
...
- Spontaneous vegetation left growing with the objective of covering the soil.
...
- Mono- or multi-species cover/catch crops including legumes (N-fixing species), non-legumes (grass or broadleafs) or mixtures.
...
- Permanent/annual intercropping in orchards, i.e.
...
- refers to the maintenance of a permanent cover crop in the alleys, such as aromatics, while annual intercropping means the presence of cover crops in the alleys that are annually harvested or incorporated into the soil.
...
- Cover/catch crops are terminated before the main cash crop is harvested, by different strategies:
...
- Mechanical, tillage with direct incorporation to soil or herbicide
...
- termination.
- Cover/catch crops biomass, after termination, can be either:
...
- left on soil as mulch or green manure.
...
- incorporated as green manure.
...
- harvested and exported from the field.
...
- Catch/cover crops or spontaneous living soil cover are compared to bare soil during fallow season (e.g.
...
- winter) or to uncovered soil/active removal of spontaneous vegetation by tillage.
...
- NA
- NA
2.
...
EFFECTS OF THE
...
FARMING PRACTICE ON CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
(table 1) ENVIRONMENT AND CLIMATE
The table below shows the number of synthesis papers reporting positive, no-effect or negative, based on the statistical comparison of the intervention and the controlwith statistical tests reporting i) a significant difference between the Intervention and the Comparator, that is to say, a significant statistical effect, which can be positive or negative; or ii) a non-statistically significant difference between the Intervention and the Comparator. In addition, we include, if any, the number of synthesis papers reporting relevant results , but without statistical test of the effects (here labelled as uncertain). The numbers between parentheses indicate the number of synthesis papers with a quality score of at least 50%. Details on quality criteria . Details on the quality assessment of the synthesis papers can be found in the methodology section of this WIKI.
Out of the 39 40 selected synthesis papers selected, 33 reported 32 included studies conducted in Europe, and 38 39 have a quality score higher than 50%. Some synthesis papers reported more than one impact.
...
Impact
...
Metric
...
Intervention
...
Positive
...
Negative
...
No effect
...
Uncertain results
...
Increase carbon sequestration
...
Soil organic carbon
...
Cover crops ****
...
9 (9)
...
0 (0)
...
4 (4)
...
1 (1)
...
...
...
Legume cover crops
...
3 (3)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
...
...
Non-legume cover crops
...
2 (2)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
Increase soil nutrients
...
...
Cover crops
...
4 (4)
...
0 (0)
...
4 (3)
...
0 (0)
...
...
...
Legume cover crops
...
2 (2)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
...
...
Non-legume cover crops
...
1 (1)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
Increase soil water retention
...
...
Cover crops
...
4(4)
...
3 (3)
...
3 (3)
...
1 (1)
...
...
...
Legume cover crops
...
1 (1)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
...
...
Non-legume cover crops
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
1 (1)
...
0 (0)
...
Decrease nutrient leaching and run-off
...
...
Cover crops
...
6 (6)
...
0 (0)
...
2 (2)
...
0 (0)
...
...
...
Legume cover crops
...
2 (2)
...
0 (0)
...
5 (5)
...
0 (0)
...
...
...
Non-legume cover crops
...
7 (7)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
Decrease soil erosion
...
...
Cover crops
...
4 (4)
...
0 (0)
...
1 (1)
...
1 (1)
...
...
...
Legume cover crops
...
1 (1)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
...
...
Non-legume cover crops
...
1 (1)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
Improve soil biological quality
...
...
Cover crops
...
7 (7)
...
0 (0)
...
1 (1)
...
0 (0)
...
...
...
Legume cover crops
...
1 (1)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
...
...
Non-legume cover crops
...
1 (1)
...
0 (0)
...
1 (1)
...
0 (0)
...
Improve soil physico-chemical quality
...
...
Cover crops
...
2 (2)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
Decrease pests and diseases
...
Increase natural enemies of pests
...
Cover crops
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
1 (1)
...
0 (0)
...
...
Decrease pests ***
...
Cover crops
...
2 (2)
...
0 (0)
...
2 (2)
...
0 (0)
...
...
Decrease weeds
...
Cover crops
...
5 (5)
...
0 (0)
...
2 (2)
...
0 (0)
...
...
...
Legume cover crops
...
1 (1)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
...
...
Non-legume cover crops
...
1 (1)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
Decrease GHG emissions **
...
CH4
...
Cover crops
...
0 (0)
...
1 (1)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
...
N2O
...
Cover crops
...
2 (2)
...
3 (3)
...
4 (4)
...
0 (0)
...
...
...
Legume cover crops
...
0 (0)
...
2 (2)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
...
...
Non-legume cover crops
...
2 (2)
...
0 (0)
...
1 (1)
...
0 (0)
...
Increase biodiversity
...
...
Cover crops
...
1 (1)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
Increase pollination
...
...
Cover crops
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
1 (1)
...
Increase plant nutrient uptake
...
Nitrogen utilisation efficiency
...
Legume cover crops
...
1 (1)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
...
...
Non-legume cover crops
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
1 (1)
...
0 (0)
...
Improve water use
...
Increase plant water use efficiency
...
Cover crops
...
1 (1)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
0 (0)
...
Increase crop yield *
...
...
Cover crops
...
5 (5)
...
1 (1)
...
8 (8)
...
1 (1)
...
...
...
Legume cover crops
...
7 (7)
...
1 (1)
...
3 (3)
...
0 (0)
...
...
...
Non-legume cover crops
...
0 (0)
...
3 (3)
...
7 (7)
...
0 (0)
* yield and quality parameters of the main cash crop subsequent to cover crops; ** data refer only to direct emissions from soil during the fallow period; ***other than weeds; ****including all types of cover crops, natural vegetation cover and mixed-species cover crops.
...
.
Table 1: Summary of effects. Number of synthesis papers reporting positive, negative or non-statistically significant effects on environmental and climate impacts. The number of synthesis papers reporting relevant results but without statistical test of the effects are also provided. When not all the synthesis papers reporting an effect are of high quality, the number of synthesis papers with a quality score of at least 50% is indicated in parentheses. Some synthesis papers may report effects for more than one impact, or more than one effect for the same impact.
|
|
|
| Statistically tested | Non-statistically tested | ||
Impact | Metric | Intervention | Comparator | Significantly positive | Significantly negative | Non-significant | |
Increase Biodiversity | biodiversity | Cover crops | Bare soil | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Increase Carbon sequestration | SOC | Cover crops | Bare soil | 9 | 0 | 4 | 1 |
Legume cover crops | Bare soil | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||
Non-legume cover crops | Bare soil | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||
Increase GHG emissions | CH4 emission | Cover crops | Bare soil | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
Increase GHG emissions | N2O emission | Cover crops | Bare soil | 2 | 4 | 4 | 0 |
Decrease GHG emissions | N2O emission | Legume cover crops | Bare soil | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
Non-legume cover crops | Bare soil | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | ||
Decrease Nutrient leaching and run-off | N loss | Cover crops | Bare soil | 6 | 0 | 2 | 0 |
Legume cover crops | Bare soil | 2 | 0 | 5 | 0 | ||
Non-legume cover crops | Bare soil | 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||
Decrease Nutrient leaching and run-off | P loss | Cover crops | Bare soil | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Legume cover crops | Bare soil | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||
Non-legume cover crops | Bare soil | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||
Decrease Pests and diseases | Natural enemies | Cover crops | Bare soil | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
Decrease Pests and diseases | Pests | Cover crops | Bare soil | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 |
Decrease Pests and diseases | Weeds | Cover crops | Bare soil | 5 | 0 | 2 | 0 |
Legume cover crops | Bare soil | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||
Non-legume cover crops | Bare soil | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||
Increase Plant nutrient uptake | Nutrient use efficiency | Legume cover crops | Bare soil | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Non-legume cover crops | Bare soil | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | ||
Increase Pollination | Pollination | Cover crops | Bare soil | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Increase Soil biological quality | Soil biological quality | Cover crops | Bare soil | 7 | 0 | 2 | 0 |
Legume cover crops | Bare soil | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||
Non-legume cover crops | Bare soil | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | ||
Decrease Soil erosion | Soil erosion | Cover crops | Bare soil | 4 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
Legume cover crops | Bare soil | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||
Non-legume cover crops | Bare soil | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||
Increase Soil nutrients | Soil nutrients | Cover crops | Bare soil | 4 | 0 | 4 (3) | 0 |
Legume cover crops | Bare soil | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||
Non-legume cover crops | Bare soil | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||
Increase Soil physico-chemical quality | Soil physico-chemical quality | Cover crops | Bare soil | 3 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Increase Soil water retention | Soil water retention | Cover crops | Bare soil | 2 | 3 | 3 | 1 |
Legume cover crops | Bare soil | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||
Non-legume cover crops | Bare soil | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | ||
Increase Water use | Water use efficiency | Cover crops | Bare soil | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Increase Crop yield | Cash crop yield | Cover crops | Bare soil | 5 | 1 | 8 | 1 |
Legume cover crops | Bare soil | 7 | 1 | 2 | 0 | ||
Non-legume cover crops | Bare soil | 0 | 3 | 7 | 0 | ||
3. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EFFECTS ON CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
The factors significantly influencing the size and/or direction of the effects on the impacts, according to the synthesis papers included in this review, are reported below. Details about the factors can be found in the summaries of the meta-analyses available in this WIKI.
Table 2: List of factors reported to significantly affect the size and/or direction of the effects on environmental and climate impacts, according to the synthesis papers reviewed. The reference number of the synthesis papers where those factors are explored is given in parentheses.
Impact | Factors |
Carbon sequestration | Cash crop (Ref11), Climatic conditions (Ref16), Cover crop biomass production (Ref4), Cover crop residue management (Ref22), Cover crop type (Ref22), Crop residue retention (Ref16), Growing window (Ref4), No factor reported (Ref24), Pedo-climatic zone (Ref4), Rotation type (Ref4), Soil depth (Ref11, Ref16), Soil pH (Ref16), Soil texture (Ref4, Ref11), Tillage (Ref4) and Time scale (Ref16) |
GHG emissions | Cover crop residue management (Ref22), Cover crop type (Ref22), N fertilisation rate (Ref33, Ref38), Period (Ref33) and Period of Nitrous Oxide Measurement (Ref38) |
Nutrient leaching and run-off | Cover crop biomass production (Ref28), Cover crop species (Ref28), Mean annual precipitation (Ref3, Ref28), Mean annual temperature (Ref3), N cover crop input to soil (Ref40), No factor reported (Ref38), Planting dates (Ref28), Slope gradient (Ref3) and Soil texture (Ref28) |
Pests and diseases | Cash crop seeding time (Ref23), Cover crop biomass production (Ref14, Ref23), Herbicides use (Ref23), No factor reported (Ref24), Seeding rate (Ref23), Sowing season (Ref23), Ternination period (Ref23), Tillage management (Ref23), Time after cover crop (Ref14) and Type of weed (Ref14) |
Soil biological quality | Annual precipitation (Ref5), Climate (Ref12), Fertilizer rate (Ref12), No factor reported (Ref24), Soil P content (Ref19), Soil pH (Ref5), Soil texture (Ref5), Soil type (Ref12), Termination method (Ref5) and Termination type (Ref12) |
Soil erosion | Slope gradient (Ref3) and Vegetation coverage (Ref3) |
Soil nutrients | Cover crop residue management (Ref22), Cover crop type (Ref22) and Duration (Ref35) |
Soil physico-chemical quality | Associated practices (Ref17), Soil depth (Ref30), Soil texture (Ref17) and Years of treatment (Ref17) |
Soil water retention | Cover crop biomass production (Ref7), Pedo-climatic zone (Ref7), Soil depth (Ref30), Soil type (Ref7) and Termination method (Ref7) |
Water use | Cover crop biomass production (Ref7), Pedo-climatic zone (Ref7), Soil type (Ref7) and Termination method (Ref7) |
Crop yield | Cash crop seeding time (Ref7), Climate (Ref40), Climate zone (Ref2), Cover crop biomass production (Ref7), Cover crop phenology (Ref40), Fruit tree age (Ref2), Mineral fertilisation rate (Ref40), N fertilisation rate (Ref37), Nitrogen fertilisation rates (Ref34), No factor reported (Ref24), Pedo-climatic zone (Ref7), Soil P content (Ref19), Soil type (Ref7, Ref25, Ref37, Ref40 |
...
IMPACTS
FACTORS
Carbon sequestration
Growing window (ref 6 ),Cover crop biomass production (ref 6 ),Rotation type (ref 6 ),Tillage (ref 6 ),Soil texture (ref 6 12 ),Pedo-climatic zone (ref 6 ),Cash crop (ref 12 ),Soil depth (ref 12 22 ),Cover crop type (ref 16 ),Cover crop residue management (ref 16 ),No factor reported (ref 17 ),Climatic conditions (ref 22 ),Soil pH (ref 22 ),Time scale (ref 22 ),Crop residue retention (ref 22 )
GHG emissions
Cover crop type (ref 16 ),Cover crop residue management (ref 16 ),N fertilisation rate (ref 28 34 ),Period (ref 28 ),Period of Nitrous Oxide Measurement (ref 34 )
Soil nutrients
Cover crop type (ref 16 ),Cover crop residue management (ref 16 )
Nutrients loss
Mean annual precipitation (ref 2 24 ),Slope gradient (ref 2 ),Mean annual temperature (ref 2 ),Soil texture (ref 24 ),Cover crop species (ref 24 ),Planting dates (ref 24 ),Cover crop biomass production (ref 24 ),No factor reported (ref 34 )
Pest and disease control
Time after cover crop (ref 10 ),Type of weed (ref 10 ),Cover crop biomass production (ref 10 20 ),No factor reported (ref 17 ),Sowing season (ref 20 ),Seeding rate (ref 20 ),Ternination period (ref 20 ),Cash crop seeding time (ref 20 ),Tillage management (ref 20 ),Herbicides use (ref 20 )
Soil erosion
Vegetation coverage (ref 2 ),Slope gradient (ref 2 )
Soil biological quality
Termination method (ref 4 ),Soil texture (ref 4 ),Soil pH (ref 4 ),Annual precipitation (ref 4 ),Climate (ref 9 ),Termination type (ref 9 ),Fertilizer rate (ref 9 ),Soil type (ref 9 ),No factor reported (ref 17 ),Soil P content (ref 21 )
Soil physico-chemical quality
Water retention
Pedo-climatic zone (ref 3 ),Soil type (ref 3 ),Termination method (ref 3 ),Cover crop biomass production (ref 3 ),Years of treatment (ref 18 ),Soil texture (ref 18 ),Associated practices (ref 18 )
Plant water use efficiency
Pedo-climatic zone (ref 3 ),Soil type (ref 3 ),Termination method (ref 3 ),Cover crop biomass production (ref 3 )
Crop yield
), Termination of cover crop before main crop ( |
Ref34), |
Food quality
Climate zone (ref 1 1 ),Fruit tree age (ref 1 1 ),Climatic zone (ref 1 )
4. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW SEARCH STRATEGY
Termination type (Ref25) and Tillage (Ref40) |
4. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW SEARCH STRATEGY
Table 3: Systematic review search strategy - methodology and search parameters.
Parameter | Details |
Keywords | WOS: TS= |
Keywords
("cover* crop*" OR "catch* crop*" OR "winter cover*" OR "soil cover* |
") AND |
TS= ("meta-analy*" OR "systematic* review*" OR "evidence map" OR "global synthesis" OR "evidence synthesis" OR "research synthesis") |
|
") AND TITLE-ABS-KEY: ("meta-analy*" OR "systematic* review*" OR "evidence map" OR "global synthesis" OR "evidence synthesis" OR "research synthesis") |
Time reference | No time |
restriction. |
Databases |
Web of Science and Scopus |
: run |
on 01 January 2022 |
Exclusion criteria |
The main criteria that led to the exclusion of a synthesis paper are: |
Synthesis papers that passed the relevance criteria were subject to critical appraisal carried out on paper-by-paper basis. Due to the high number of synthesis papers available, in case that more than 10 were available for one single impact, we selected the 10 most recent ones including data in the EU.
From the 158 potentially relevant synthesis papers,61 |
29 after reading the full text according to the above-mentioned criteria. Finally, |
40 synthesis papers were selected |
5. LIST OF SYNTHESIS PAPERS INCLUDED IN THE REVIEW OF THE FARMING PRACTICE IMPACTS
. |
5. SYNTHESIS PAPERS INCLUDED IN THE REVIEW
Table 4: List of synthesis papers included in this review. More details can be found in the summaries of the meta-analyses.
Ref Num | Author(s) | Year | Title | Journal | DOI |
Ref1 | Crystal-Ornelas, R; Thapa, R; Tully, KL | 2021 | Soil organic carbon is affected by organic amendments, conservation tillage, and cover cropping in organic farming |
Number
Author
Year
Title
Reference
doi
1
Fang, LF; Shi, XJ; Zhang, Y; Yang, YH; Zhang, XL; Wang, XZ; Zhang, YT
2021
The effects of ground cover management on fruit yield and quality: a meta-analysis
ARCHIVES OF AGRONOMY AND SOIL SCIENCE
10.1080/03650340.2021.1937607
2
Liu, R; Thomas, B; Shi, XJ; Zhang, XL; Wang, ZC; Zhang, YT
2021
systems: A meta-analysis |
Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 312, 107356 |
10.1016/j. |
agee. |
2021. |
107356 |
3
Wang, J; Zhang, SH; Sainju, UM; Ghimire, R; Zhao, FZ
2021
A meta-analysis on cover crop impact on soil water storage, succeeding crop yield, and water-use efficiency
Agricultural Water Management, 256, 107085
10.1016/j.agwat.2021.107085
4
Muhammad, I; Wang, J; Sainju, UM; Zhang, SH; Zhao, FZ; Khan, A
2021
Cover cropping enhances soil microbial biomass and affects microbial community structure: A meta-analysis
Ref2 | Fang, LF; Shi, XJ; Zhang, Y; Yang, YH; Zhang, XL; Wang, XZ; Zhang, YT | 2021 | The effects of ground cover management on fruit yield and quality: a meta-analysis | ARCHIVES OF AGRONOMY AND SOIL SCIENCE | 10.1080/03650340.2021.1937607 |
Ref3 | Liu, R; Thomas, B; Shi, XJ; Zhang, XL; Wang, ZC; Zhang, YT | 2021 | Effects of ground cover management on improving water and soil conservation in tree crop systems: A meta-analysis | CATENA 199, 105085 |
10.1016/j. |
catena.2020. |
5
Puissant, J; Villenave, C; Chauvin, C; Plassard, C; Blanchart, E; Trap, J
2021
Quantification of the global impact of agricultural practices on soil nematodes: A meta-analysis
SOIL BIOLOGY & BIOCHEMISTRY, 161, 108383
10.1016/j.soilbio.2021.108383
6
McClelland, SC; Paustian, K; Schipanski, ME
2021
Management of cover crops in temperate climates influences soil organic carbon stocks: a meta-analysis
Ecological applications, 31, 3, e02278
10.1002/eap.2278
7
Crystal-Ornelas, R; Thapa, R; Tully, KL
2021
Soil organic carbon is affected by organic amendments, conservation tillage, and cover cropping in organic farming systems: A meta-analysis
105085 | |||||
Ref4 | McClelland, SC; Paustian, K; Schipanski, ME | 2021 | Management of cover crops in temperate climates influences soil organic carbon stocks: a meta-analysis | Ecological applications, 31, 3, e02278 | 10.1002/eap.2278 |
Ref5 | Muhammad, I; Wang, J; Sainju, UM; Zhang, SH; Zhao, FZ; Khan, A | 2021 | Cover cropping enhances soil microbial biomass and affects microbial community structure: A meta-analysis | Geoderma 381, 114696 | 10.1016/j.geoderma.2020.114696 |
Ref6 | Puissant, J; Villenave, C; Chauvin, C; Plassard, C; Blanchart, E; Trap, J | 2021 | Quantification of the global impact of agricultural practices on soil nematodes: A meta-analysis | SOIL BIOLOGY & BIOCHEMISTRY, 161, 108383 | 10.1016/j. |
soilbio.2021. |
108383 |
Ref7 |
Wang, |
J; |
Zhang, |
SH; |
Sainju, |
UM; |
Ghimire, |
R; |
Zhao, FZ | 2021 | A meta-analysis on cover crop impact on soil water storage, succeeding crop yield, and water-use efficiency | Agricultural Water Management, 256, 107085 |
2020
A calculator to quantify cover crop effects on soil health and productivity
10.1016/j. |
agwat. |
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Disclaimer: These fiches present a large amount of scientific knowledge synthesised to assess farming practices impacts on the environment, climate and productivity. The European Commission maintains this WIKI to enhance public access to information about its initiatives. Our goal is to keep this information timely and accurate. If errors are brought to our attention, we will try to correct them. However, the Commission accepts no responsibility or liability whatsoever with regard to the information on these fiches
[1] Synthesis research papers include either meta-analysis or systematic reviews with quantitative results. Details can be found in the methodology section of the WIKI.
[2] Inglett, P.W., Reddy, K.R., Corstanje, R., 2005. Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment | ScienceDirect.